张胜，1986年8月出生，中学生物骨干教师，硕土研究生学历，在国际期刊发表SCI英文科技论文4篇。参与编写的《Vitamin A and Carotenoids》一书被英国皇家化学学会（The Royal Society of Chemistry）出版，个人SCI论文被该书收录。参与翻译的6本《STEM》国际教程和《国际中学生物实验》教材已出版。曾在《生物学教学》和《中学生物教学》等期刊上发表多篇论文。论文、命题和教学课例参评多次获奖。

参与广东省中小学“十二五”规划课题——《生物学“问题导学法”教学研究》课题研究。独立开发的《人体探秘》校本国际课程、《基于生物学的深圳高中生性教育课程》和《深圳中学生生活素养提升行动研究》被深圳市教育局立项作为“深圳好课程”委托开发项目。担任生物奥赛指导教师，指导多名学生在广东省和全国中学生生物竞赛中获奖。

广东省“十三五”教育规划课题“强师工程”立项课题——《基于生物学科核心素养的校本国际课程的开发与实践研究》课题主持人。

CHAPTER 1?Body Basics — Levels of Human Structure 

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Six Levels of Organization

     1.2.1?Chemical Level

     1.2.2?Organelle Level

     1.2.3?Cellular Level

     1.2.4?Tissue Level

     1.2.5?Organ Level

     1.2.6?Organ System Level

1.3 Organ Systems in the Human Body

1.4 Organ Systems of the Body are Not Really Separate

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 2?Cell Structure and Function 

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Cellular Components: Structure and Function

     2.2.1?Cell Membrane

     2.2.2?Mitochondria

     2.2.3?Endoplasmic Reticulum

     2.2.4?Nucleus

     2.2.5?Cytoplasm

     2.2.6?Lipid Bilayer

     2.2.7?Membrane Proteins

     2.2.8?Functions of the Plasma Membrane

2.3 Cell Shapes and Sizes

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3?Tissue 

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Epithelial Tissue Covers Organs and Lines Body Cavities

3.3 Loose Fibrous and Related Connective Tissues

3.4 Blood

     3.4.1?Red Blood Cells

     3.4.2?White Blood Cells

     3.4.3?Platelets and Blood Clotting

3.5 Muscular Tissue and Nervous Tissue

3.6 32Nervous Tissue Communicates with and Regulates the Functions of  the Body’s Organs  

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 4?Integumentary System 

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Regions of the Skin

4.3 Accessory Structures of the Skin

     4.3.1?Hair Follicles

     4.3.2?Nails

     4.3.3?Sweat Glands

4.4 Aging of the Skin

4.5 Disorders of the Skin

4.6 Skin as a Barrier to Infection

4.7 Sources of Skin Grafts

4.8 Why Does Skin Scar

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 5?Skeletal System 

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Bone Classification

5.3 Skeletal Organization

5.4 Bone Functions

     5.4.1?Support and Protection

     5.4.2?Body Movement

     5.4.3?Blood Cell Formation

     5.4.4?Storage of Inorganic Salts

5.5 The Human Ribcage

5.6 Bones in the Hand

5.7 Joints Occur Where Bones Meet

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 6?Muscular System 

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Types of Muscles

     6.2.1?Smooth Muscle

     6.2.2?Cardiac Muscle

     6.2.3?Skeletal Muscle

6.3 Functions of Skeletal Muscles

6.4 Skeletal Muscles of the Body

6.5 Basic Structure of Skeletal Muscles

6.6 Movement

6.7 Major Skeletal Muscles

6.8 Muscle Growth and Performance

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 7?Lymphatic System and Immunity 

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Make-up and Function of the Lymphatic System

7.3 Cells and Proteins Fight the Body’s Infections

     7.3.1?White Blood Cells

     7.3.2?Bleeding and Clot Formation

7.4 Modes of Defense

7.5 Many Body Systems Work to Produce Nonspecific Responses

    7.5.1?Inflammation

     7.5.2?Fever

7.6 Cells of the Immune System Produce Specific Responses

     7.6.1?Cellular (Cell-mediated) Immunity

     7.6.2?Humoral Immunity

7.7 Immunity Prevents a Person from Getting Sick from a Pathogen

     7.7.1?Active Immunity

     7.7.2?Vaccines Artificially Produce Acquired Immunity

     7.7.3?Passive Immunity

7.8 Hypersensitivity Reactions

7.9 Other Immune Problems

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 8?Respiratory System 

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Organs of the Respiratory System

8.3 External and Internal Respiration Require No Energy

8.4 The Effect of Smoking on Respiration

     8.4.1?The Risks of Smoking

     8.4.2?How is Smoking Harmful

     8.4.3?Questions about Tobacco, Smoking, and Health

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 9?Urinary System 

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Kidneys

     9.2.1?Location of the Kidneys

     9.2.2?Urine Formation

     9.2.3?Glomerular Filtration

     9.2.4?Excretion of Urine

9.3 The Kidneys Concentrate Urine to Maintain Water-Salt Balance

9.4 The Artificial Kidney Machine Makes up for Faulty Kidneys

9.5 Biology Matters Health Focus — Urinalysis

     9.5.1?Physical Examination

     9.5.2?Chemical Examination

     9.5.3?Microscopic Examination

     9.5.4?Forensic Analysis

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 10?Nervous System 

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Divisions of the Nervous System

       10.2.1?Anatomical Divisions

       10.2.2?Functional Divisions

10.3 Neurons are the Functional Units of a Nervous System

10.4 Neurons Have a Resting Potential across Their Membranes When  They are Not Active

10.5 Neurons Have an Action Potential across Axon Membranes When  They are Active

10.6 Communication between Neurons Occurs at Synapses

10.7 Brain

10.8 Spinal Cord

10.9 Drug Addiction

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 11?The Endocrine System 

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Endocrine Glands and Hormones

11.3 The Endocrine and Nervous Systems Work Together

11.4 Negative Feedback Mechanisms

11.5 The Hypothalamus is a Part of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

       11.5.1?Posterior Pituitary

       11.5.2?Anterior Pituitary

11.6 Effects of Growth Hormone

11.7 Causes and Treatment of Diabetes

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 12?Circulatory System 

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Components of Blood

12.3 Blood Plasma Is a Fluid Matrix

       12.3.1?Nutrients, Wastes, and Hormones

       12.3.2?Ions

       12.3.3?Proteins

12.4 Blood Cells and Platelets Circulate in the Plasma

       12.4.1?Erythrocytes

       12.4.2?Leukocytes

       12.4.3?Platelets

12.5 Human Blood Types

12.6 Struct are of the Heart

12.7 Blood Flow Through the Chambers

12.8 Blood Vessels

12.9 Control of the Heartbeat

       12.9.1?Recording the Heart Rate

       12.9.2?Chemical Regulators

12.10  Measurement of Arterial Blood Pressure

CHAPTER SUMMARY

13.1 Introduction

13.2 An Overview on Digestion

13.3 Both Mechanical and Chemical Digestion Occur in the Mouth

       13.3.1?Salivary Glands 

       13.3.2?Teeth

13.4 Food Storage and Chemical Digestion Take Place in the Stomach

13.5 The Structure of the Small Intestine Is Specialized for Digestion and Nutrient Uptake

13.6 The Pancreas and the Liver Contribute to Chemical Digestion

       13.6.1?The Pancreas

       13.6.2?The Liver 

13.7 The Large Intestine Absorbs Water and Prepares Wastes for Elimination

13.8 The Movement of Food

13.9 Absorption of the Products of Digestion

13.10  The Liver and Assimilation

13.11  Alcohol and the Liver

13.12  Absorption of Water and Elimination of Wastes

13.13  Nutrition, Fitness, Lifestyle, and Health

13.14  Essential Nutrients

       13.14.1?Carbohydrates

       13.14.2?Fats (Lipids)

       13.14.3?Cholesterol

       13.14.4?Proteins

       13.14.5?Minerals

       13.14.6?Vitamins

13.15  Healthy Diet

13.16  Malnutrition

13.17  The Role of Fitness and Lifestyle Choices

       13.17.1?Exercise

       13.17.2?How to Build Endurance When Running

CHAPTER SUMMARY

14.1 Introduction

14.2 The Male Reproductive System

       14.2.1?The Path of Sperm

       14.2.2?Spermatogenesis

14.3 The Female Reproductive System

       14.3.1?Ovaries

       14.3.2?Ovulation

       14.3.3?Oogenesis

14.4 The Menstrual Cycle

       14.4.1?Flow Phase

       14.4.2?Follicular Phase

       14.4.3?Luteal Phase

14.5 Fertilization and Pregnancy

       14.5.1?The Start of the Human Reproductive Process

       14.5.2?What Happens during Fertilization

       14.5.3?Implantation

14.6 Fetal Development

       14.6.1?The Placenta and Umbilical Cord

       14.6.2?The Developing Fetus

14.7 Nine Months of Change and Growth

14.8 Pregnancy Ends with the Birth of the Newborn

14.9 Hormonal Control of Pregnancy

14.10  Obtaining Fetal Chromosomes

14.11  Bioethical Focus on Testing the Fetal Development

       14.11.1?Counseling for Chromosomal Disorders

       14.11.2?Genetic Testing Can be Performed Prior to Birth

14.12  The Female Breast

14.13  Hormones and the Breast

14.14  Human Growth and Aging Also Occur in Stages

       14.14.1?Infancy and Childhood

       14.14.2?Puberty and Adolescence

       14.14.3?Adulthood and Aging

14.15  Control of Reproduction

14.16  Reproductive Technologies are Available to Help the Infertile

       14.16.1?Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID)

        14.16.2?In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

14.17  Differences between Twins Start with Cells

       14.17.1?Fraternal Twins Start as Two

       14.17.2?Identical Twins Start as One

       14.17.3?The Same Genes

14.18  Life Story

CHAPTER SUMMARY

15.1 Introduction

15.2 The Internal Environment

15.3 Conditions within the Body Must Remain within an Arrow Range

15.4 Homeostasis and the Internal Environment

       15.4.1?Internal Control Systems in the Body

       15.4.2?What Happens When the Body is Too Hot

       15.4.3?What Happens When the Body is Too Cold

15.5 Interactions among Systems and Maintaining Homeostasis

15.6 Negative Feedback Loops are Necessary for Homeostasis

       15.6.1?Negative Feedback

       15.6.2?The Pancreas Regulates the Blood Sugar Level

       15.6.3?Positive Feedback

CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 1?Body Basics — Levels of Human Structure

The human body is a busy place! Even when you are running or reading a book, your body’s organ systems are actively carrying out their jobs. Your heart beats an average of 70 times each minute, pumping blood to all parts of your body. Your lungs repeatedly take in and expel air. Your skin is constantly shedding dead cells and growing new ones. Your digestive system is working on the last meal you ate. Even when you are asleep, your body’s systems are at work.

   You are beginning a fascinating and challenging study—the study of the human body. As progressing through this text, you will begin to understand the complexity of organization and function found in the human organism. Keep in mind that the goals of your study are to learn (1) how the body is structured and organized and (2) how the body functions. The first chapter provides an overview of the human body to build a foundation of knowledge that is necessary for your continued study.

1.1 Introduction

Many people have compared the human body to a machine. Think about some common machines, such as drills and washing machines. Each machine consists of many parts, and each part does a specific job, yet all the parts work together to perform an over all function. The human body is like a machine in all these ways. Each organ functions and supports the body in a specific way that helps the whole organism.

Your body contains trillions of cells, of which there are approximately 100 different types. Cells of the same type occur within a tissue. A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a similar function. We will see that the four basic types of tissue in an animal body are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.  An organ contains different types of tissues arranged in a certain fashion. In other words, the structure and function of an organ are dependent on the tissues it contains. That is why it is sometimes said that tissues, not organs, are the structural and functional units of the body. Several organs comprise an organ system, and the organs of the system work together to perform necessary functions for the organism.

1.2 Six Levels of Organization

The human body is complex, so it is not surprising that there are several levels of structural organization, as shown in Figure 1.1. Each level depends on the structure and function of the level below it.

1.2.1?Chemical Level

The chemical level consists of the atom, molecule, macro-molecule, and organelle subdivisions as shown in Figure 1.1. At the simplest level, the body is composed of chemical substances that are formed of atoms and molecules. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemicals, and atoms combine in specific ways to form molecules. Some molecules are very small, such as water molecules, but others may be very large, such as the macro-molecules of proteins. Various small and large molecules are grouped together to form organelles. An organelle is a microscopic subunit of a cell, somewhat like a tiny organ, which carries out specific functions within a cell.

1.2.2?Organelle Level

Organelles are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions, much like organs such as the heart, liver, and kidneys carry out individual functions of the whole body. Organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles, and others. Organelles and other cellular components are composed of molecules—particles of at least two atoms joined by chemical bonds. The largest molecules, such as proteins, fats, and DNA, are called macro-molecules.

1.2.3?Cellular Level

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body, because all of the processes of life occur within cells. The body is composed of many different types of cells. Muscle cells, blood cells, and nerve cells are examples. The body is composed of trillions of cells.

1.2.4?Tissue Level

Similar types of cells are usually grouped together in the body to form a tissue. Each body tissue consists of an aggregation of similar cells that perform similar functions. There are several different types of tissues in the body. Muscle and nerve tissues are examples.

1.2.5?Organ Level

Each organ of the body is composed of two or more tissues that work together, enabling the organ to perform its specific functions. The body contains numerous organs, and each has a definite form and function. The stomach, heart, and brain are examples of organ.

1.2.6?Organ System Level

An organ system is a group of organs that carries out a basic function of the organism such as circulation, respiration, or digestion. The human body has 11 organ systems, defined and illustrated in the next section. Usually, the organs of a system are physically interconnected, such as the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra that compose the urinary system. The endocrine system, however, is a group of hormone-secreting glands and tissues that, for the most part, have no physical connection to each other.

1.3 Organ Systems in the Human Body

The organs of the body are arranged in functional groups so that their independent functions are coordinated to perform specific system functions. These coordinated and functional groups are called.The digestive and nervous systems are examples of organ systems. Most organs belong to a single organ system, but a few organs are assigned to more than one organ system. For example, the ovaries and testes belong to both the reproductive and the endocrine systems.

There are 11 organ systems in the human body, as well as an immune system, which is better described as a population of cells that inhabit multiple organs rather than as an organ system. The organ systems are illustrated and summarized in Figure 1.2 in the order that they are covered by this book. They are classified in the following list by their principal functions, although this is an unavoidably flawed classification. Some organs belong to two or more systems—for example, the male urethra is part of both the urinary and the reproductive systems; the pharynx is part of both the digestive and the respiratory systems; and the mammary glands belong to both the integumentary and the female reproductive systems.

★  
Systems of Protection, Support, and Movement

    Integumentary system

    Skeletal system

    Muscular system

★  
Systems of Internal Communication and Integration

    Nervous system

    Endocrine system

★  
Systems of Fluid Transport

    Circulatory system

    Lymphatic system

★  
Systems of Intake and Output

    Respiratory system

    Digestive system

    Urinary system

★  
Systems of Reproduction

    Male reproductive system

    Female reproductive system

Table 1.1 illustrates the organ systems of the body and lists the major components and functions for each system. Although each organ system has its own unique functions, all organ systems are interdependent on one another. For example, cells of all organ systems rely on the cardiovascular system to supply nutrient.

Table 1.1?The principal organ systems of the human body

1.4 Organ Systems of the Body are Not Really Separate

Even though we will be examining each organ system separately, they are not really separate or independent (Figure 1.3). Each one requires one or more of the others to function correctly.

For example, the bones in the skeleton cannot function without the vitamin D that is provided when the skin (integumentary system) produces vitamin D in response to sunshine. If the digestive system does not break down food to get energy, then no other system will operate. The same can be said of the circulatory system that provides oxygen to tissues and removes carbon dioxide. And, of course, the circulatory system can not deliver oxygen to the rest of the body if the respiratory system doesn’t bring oxygen into contact with blood pumped to the lungs by the heart. Hormones secreted by the endocrine system help regulate the action of the kidneys.

Levels of Organization

1. The body consists of several levels of organization of increasing complexity.

2. From simple to complex, the organizational levels are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organismic.

3. The organs of the body are arranged in coordinated groups called organ systems.

4. The organ systems of the body are: integumentary system, cardiovascular system,  skeletal system,  lymphatic system,  muscular system, respiratory system,  nervous system, urinary system,  endocrine system, reproductive system, digestive system.